Ordinary and everyday language moreForthcoming in Kelley Dean Jolley's WITTGENSTEIN: KEY CONCEPTS |
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ORDINARY/EVERYDAY LANGUAGE i
By Rupert Read.
Wittgenstein is in practice generally thought to be some variety of ‘Ordinary Language’ Philosopher. That is, a philosopher who takes ordinary language (as opposed to scientific language, to ‘technical’ language, or to its bastard child, ‘superscientific’ (‘metaphysical’) language) to be our keystone in philosophy; and who thinks that philosophy can proceed therefore by means of paying careful attention to the way we normally actually speak, and prohibiting uses that conflict with the way we normally actually speak. And indeed, what ‘ordinary/everyday language’ is taken to be opposed to is critical. The key point of this article is however to suggest, contra what still tends to be the prevailing wisdom, that the crucial mistake in ‘Wittgenstein studies’ has generally been to misidentify the contrast class that Wittgenstein intended. I call it the crucial mistake – for the mistake has (had) enormous consequences, as I shall seek briefly to demonstrate.
“Everyday use” We should begin with the single most crucial passage, for understanding Wittgenstein’s employment of the term “everyday”:
“When philosophers use a word – for instance “knowledge”, “being”, “object”, “I, “proposition”, or “name” – and try to grasp the essence of the thing, one must always ask oneself: is the word ever actually used in this way in the language, which is after all its home? // What we do is to bring words back from their metaphysical to their everyday use.” ii
The first thing to say about this famous passage is that it opens with a
question; and that the sentence that follows does not answer the question (or at least, does not ‘reveal’ it to have been a merely rhetorical question). The question ought to be regarded (at the very least provisionally) as a genuine question, motivating one in one’s subsequent philosophical activities. Thus it is always (for we who wish to follow Wittgenstein’s method) initially an open question whether or not the philosophical remarks that we are interrogating can be seen as involving ‘homespun’ or homebaked’ language uses, or not. I will return to this criticallycrucial presumption of interpretive charity, below. Furthermore, Gordon Baker makes a vital move in helping us to understand what is going on in this potentiallydeceptive passage, when he suggests that we ought to regard the concept that one as it were starts from or with, here, as the metaphysical. iii Rather than presupposing (what there is precious little textual warrant for in Wittgenstein) that the everyday is some secure area of language that we can look to for forceful guidance as to how logic will ‘permit’ us to speak, we might rather be guided by the fact that predecessorversions of this remark in earlier texts of Wittgenstein’s Nachlass all feature the word “metaphysical”, but oscillate between various other words as its possible contrastclass.iv Thus: we start with the question as to what one is trying to do when one uses a word (such as “being” or “object” or “this”, etc.) in a sense which does or is something entirely extraordinary, or which strives to establish an essence where it is nonobvious that an essence can be established. What is happening, when words are used in a way that we struggle to grapple with, in an effort “to grasp the essence of the thing”? E.g. When “this” is said to be a name, in fact the truest or realest name of all, and when (what we call) names are said to be only degenerate cases of names. (Cf. PI 38ff.) Philosophy is about trying to make sense of things. (Trying to weave uses which we do not (as yet) find our feet with in with our existing grasp/use of our concepts.) Things which, it is said, must be the case, though there does not seem to be a secure warrant for the “must”. Such ‘things’, such
essentialisings, we provisionally call ‘metaphysical’. If the philosopher with whom we are in dialogue v can convince us that he has developed a novel use (that has a use), then we should allow that this is part of the language. If, on the contrary, we can convince him that he has not specified a use for his words, then he allows that what he has come up with is nothing that has a sense. Nonsense.vi An idle wheel. Language, as Wittgenstein memorably puts it, ‘on holiday’ (See again PI 38).vii Here, then, it is crucial to point up an ambiguity in the word “use”, in PI 116 (an ambiguity with a familyrelation to that in the word “satz” in the Tractatus), again to avoid being deceived by it. We can speak of metaphysical uses of language, in the sense of uses of words where the speaker intends to do metaphysics with his words (intends to provide an essentialist definition, to say what must be the case), or in the sense of uses of words where we suggest to the speaker that he is willynilly employing his words metaphysically (such that they are ‘flickering’ viii). But none of this turns metaphysical uses into a kind of use of words, in the sense that there are uses of words to (e.g.) ask things as opposed to state things, or (e.g.) to do history as opposed to to do science. Metaphysical use is, roughly, only a variety of use in the same kind of way as a decoy duck is a variety of duck… “Metaphysical use” is not intended by Wittgenstein in PI 116 to be (as it) were a genuine category of languageuse.ix In the phrase “everyday use”, the term “everyday” is, for Wittgenstein, pleonastic (It is worth noting that the terms “everyday” and “ordinary” are in fact rarely used by Wittgenstein. In that regard, they are akin to his term “form of life”, and rather unlike his term “languagegame”.). The term “everyday” or “ordinary” is employed by Wittgenstein chiefly as a reminder: to use these words is to remind one(self) of something that one so utterly swims in that one can forget it completely.x Less one’s spectacles, more one’s cornea. One is not reminded as if of a fact; it is more like the kind of ‘reminder’ one experiences when (for instance) one has a neardeath experience.xi Not the
reminder that one is mortal – for that, although easily forgotten, is nevertheless not so hard to remember. Rather: the reminder that one is alive. The kind of reminder wherein ground suddenly becomes figure. The kind of ‘reminder’ delivered e.g. by a suddenly vivid experience of something perfectly… ordinary.
“Everyday”, as opposed to… A little more work remains to be done in order correctly to home in on the requisite contrastclass for everyday/ordinary, in order to clarify their meaning for Wittgenstein. And that is: to be quite clear on the character of what is counterposed to the everyday, here, in order to enable it to be spoken of at all. Let me quote Ed Witherspoon on this:
“[W]hen Wittgenstein is confronted with an utterance that has no clearly discernible place in a languagegame, he does not assume that he can parse the utterance; rather, he invites the speaker to explain how she is using her words, to connect them with other elements of the languagegame in a way that displays their meaningfulness. Only if the speaker is unable to do this in a coherent way does Wittgenstein conclude that the utterance is nonsense; ideally, the speaker will reach the same conclusion in the same way and will retract or modify her words accordingly. Applying Wittgenstein’s conception of nonsense therefore requires an intense engagement with the target of criticism; an examination of the words alone is not enough. When Wittgenstein criticizes an utterance as nonsensical, he aims to expose, not a defect in the words themselves, but a confusion in the speaker’s relation to her words – a confusion that is manifested in the speaker’s failure to specify a meaning for them.” xii
This is an excellent exposition of what it amounts to, to ‘return’ words to the
language.xiii. One must use words in ways that one is oneself more or less comfortable with, and can take responsibility for. One must acknowledge one’s own words, fully. Fairly accusing another of speaking nonsense is never a matter of merely noting their departure from accepted modes of speech. It is a last resort, and always provisional, when charity gives out: it is accusing them of speaking in such a way that they themselves will come to admit as amounts to them not successfully saying any one thing, and hovering between possible senses. But Witherspoon doesn’t go quite far enough, in acknowledging the implications of this radical method of ‘returning’ one to oneself, this method of resolution. Where he writes “Ideally”, he should I believe have written “Essentially”. Compare on this Wittgenstein: “We can only convict another person of a mistake… if he (really) acknowledges this expression as the correct expression of his feeling. // For only if he acknowledges it as such, is it the correct expression. (Psychoanalysis.)” xiv In other words: the ultimate criterion of a successful effort to criticize something as a departure from ‘everyday’ language must be: the subject’s own consent.xv So: If the subject is (for example) coining a new metaphor, expressing herself poetically, founding a new branch of science with a real empirical tether or expression, exploring/developing a new type of numbers, seeking to remind one of that certain ‘things’ are things/ideas/claims which we do not (at least, not yet) regard as so much as making sense, or in any other way knowingly breaking with conventional modes of expression, or indeed knowingly speaking nonsense with some distinct end in view, then our effort at (a purely) philosophical criticism must cease.
Ordinary language / scientific language We can exemplify the discussion now, by casting a look at something that Wittgenstein asks himself, about philosophy, and about psychoanalysis as it has actually developed (in Culture and Value):xvi “Why shouldn’t I apply
words in ways that conflict with their original usage? Doesn’t Freud, for example, do this when he calls even an anxiety dream a wishfulfillment dream? Where is the difference?” Now, we should immediately be on our guard here: for Wittgenstein does not in fact consider the Freudian move hereabouts an unproblematic one, as we know for instance from his explicit treatment of the extension of the term “wishfulfillment” in the Conversations...on Psychology.xvii Freud uses words in ways that conflict with their original usage without fully admitting (or realizing) that he is doing so, and this for Wittgenstein is a sign that what we have in Freud is a mythology, a persuasive and potentiallydangerous effort to get one to think in a different way about something, about important aspects of our lives and minds and words, without (as it were) full disclosure. To expand on this a little: the point must be that Freud takes himself to be a scientist, and thus thinks he is licensed in using technical terms, in using terms in (in this case) a ‘bloated’ manner. Thus the problem with Freud is not – and this is crucial the extended use itself; it is that the extended use is not in fact scientifically justified,xviii but (moreover) that there is then a systematic unclarity, in that Freud continues to act as if it is a scientific claim that is in question, in his work. If there is to be extended use of terms beyond what we are used to, then it had better either be (e.g. scientifically) justified, or at least clear about its own groundlessness. If a philosopher uses a word in an ‘extended’ sense, as Wittgenstein himself of course notinfrequently does, then he has to take full responsibility for such a use. That extended use cannot be grounded, as an extended use in science can be (Think for instance of the kind of grounding that became available, over time, for even the remarkable linguistic innovations of Copernicus or Einstein). Wittgenstein is asking, in effect, why a human scientist or a philosopher shouldn’t do simply what natural scientists do: Where is the difference between himself or Freud on the one hand and a (natural) scientist,
with whom there can be no quarrel in principle concerning her use of technical terms, on the other? In other words: It is fine for people to bifurcate from ordinary usage, generally, so long as they have a good reason for doing so; but there is something prima facie problematic or difficult or at least voluntaristic about himself or Freud doing so. What, exactly? This is his answer:
“In a scientific perspective a new use is justified by a theory. And if the theory is false, the new extended use has to be given up. But in philosophy the extended use does not rest on true or false beliefs about natural processes. No fact justifies it. None can give it any support.”
This quotation makes quite clear the vital difference that Wittgenstein sees between the use of technical language in the natural sciences and in philosophy. Science is everyday language that uses technical terms, that for instance ‘bloats’ terms relative to their standard usage, on the grounds of the theoretic efficacy of so doing. Whereas a philosopher or a ‘human scientist’ cannot similarly undergird such a ‘bloated’ use, without setting up a theory or some such that stands in tension with the way we already competently express ourselves. (If a ‘human scientist’ gets us to speak in a new way, this is a creative or a political achievement, not a scientific one.) In short: this quotation demonstrates very efficaciously the point that I have been arguing throughout. Wittgenstein generally counterposes ordinary or everyday language not to scientific language – scientific language is simply one ‘branch’ of ordinary language – but to language ‘outside languagegames’ (Cf. PI 47). To metaphysical language. To what is latently nonsense. To nothing. To nothings that powerfully and persistently xix masquerade as somethings about which nothing further can intelligibly be said. Isn’t there perhaps a danger in saying that all sensible language use is ordinary language use, as I now appear to be doing: For, if everything
sensible/sensical is ordinary, isn’t this term in danger of becoming rather empty? Perhaps it’s turning into a metaphysical term itself? This risk is inevitable. Wittgenstein’s own manner of speaking is not immune to the very vicissitudes that he detects in the philosophical language that he is interrogating. That is why Wittgenstein’s own language is transitional,xx and his ‘method’ throughandthrough therapeutic. But, crucially: there is no dogmatic insistence, upon my part or Wittgenstein’s, that the terms “ordinary” or “everyday” be used thus; there is merely a motivated suggestion that so to use them, while providing absolutely no guarantee (there can be none) of avoiding metaphysical pitfall, will conduce to one’s chances of finding one’s way about – of finding some peace. Moreover, as alreadyindicated, there are plenty of nonordinary uses – of uses that run the risk of being metaphysical – that are desirable/necessary, or at least potentially so. Poetic employments of words, novel scientific vocabularyshifts etc.– and, indeed, many (most?) of the discursive practices of Wittgenstein (etc.) himself. Wittgenstein’s own ‘extended’ uses of words can be justified, if at all, only by their successfully expressing his struggle with language, and/or actually effecting the (‘therapeutic’) work on others (or on himself) that they intend. All words are the same – there are no magic words, no words that mean something irrespective of our decisionsinaction as to what words (will) mean.xxi “We are under the illusion that what is peculiar, profound, essential, in our investigation, resides in its trying to grasp the incomparable essence of language. That is, the order existing between the concepts of proposition, word, proof, truth, experience, and so on. This order is a super order between – so to speak – superconcepts. Whereas, of course, if the words “language”, “experience”, “world” have a use, it must be as humble a one as that of the words “table”, “lamp”, “door”. “ (PI 97). They – words all just means what we have them mean (Though that isn’t the same as saying, ‘They all just mean whatever one desires or ‘wills’ them to mean at any given
moment’!). The words that philosophers tend to fixate upon are, for Wittgenstein, perfectly ordinary. Or, better still: their use is perfectly humble. It is only insofar as we want them to be used metaphysically that illusions otherwise get generated. And there remains the interesting question of what the status is of the task of coming to see and feel and ‘present’ these words as ordinary.
Against ‘Ordinary Language Philosophy’ Thus, once we get clear on the contrast class that Wittgenstein intends, our task in philosophy instantly becomes a lot clearer – and a lot harder. What we do, then, is to try to ‘bring words back’ to their ‘everyday uses’ by means of trying to get others (and ourselves) to think – to see that they (we) don’t need anything other than those ‘everyday uses’ in order to do all that one really can do with language. (And: to think that the idea of it being possible or necessary to do anything other than what these words are after is in fact only the fantasy of an idea. Once again: ‘the everyday’ is not counterposed to science. It is ‘counterposed’ only to metaphysics, to myth to decorated and attractive forms of nothing. Its antithesis is: nothings that charm and delude us into thinking that they are somethings.) It is no longer possible to proscribe forms of words and to think that one is making philosophical progress by means of doing so. For the contrastclass to the everyday is only: a lived delusion.xxii Neither is it best put as a set of failed attempts at science that nevertheless succeed in being or doing or saying something greater than or different than science. For there is no such thing as succeeding in expressing or stating nonsense. There are only particular failures to mean clearly. If one thinks that ‘the’ everyday is something that can be mined, explored, made explicit, then one becomes a wordpoliceman, like Logical Positivism xxiii, like the ‘Oxford’ Wittgensteinians such as arguably Peter Strawson xxiv and certainly Peter Hacker, and in one way or another like most
‘Wittgensteinians’, at least until recently.xxv But this is a complete misunderstanding of Wittgenstein’s ‘method’: which, to repeat, is above all to seek to show to the reader that they themselves need to settle on how they are going to use a word. ((See the article in this collection on ‘Therapy’.xxvi)) If one thinks that usage can be one’s definitive guide to what is legitimately philosophicallysayable, then one in effect turns philosophy into a branch of sociolinguistics: this is no part of Wittgenstein’s brief.xxvii One then finds oneself saying things like “The meaning of a word really is its use in the language”, and thus falling into essentialism – into metaphysics!xxviii If one thinks that bifurcations from ordinary language in this sense are illegitimate, then one moreover puts forth a conservative doctrine, and disallows linguistic innovation.xxix This kind of interference with (for instance) scientific innovation is again quite alien to Wittgenstein’s thought.xxx The underlying absurdity of the traditional idea of ‘Ordinary Language Philosophy’, an absurdity mirrored in only superficially different forms in the doctrine of ‘category mistakes’, in Logical Positivism, in ‘Descriptive Metaphysics’, in ‘conceptual geography/topography’, etc. etc., is the absurdity of thinking that there could be any such thing as stating the content of the ordinary/everyday. For: The ordinary/everyday is everything. It is all there is… It is, as it were, all that is the case.xxxi What kind of standpoint must one be fantasizing, in order to make clear its contents? Ironically, of course, one must be fantasizing a metaphysical standpoint, an Archimedean point as it were outside all language and thoughts. In order supposedly to overview the contents of the ordinary, one has to imagine an entirely mythical perspective ‘from sideways on’. Thus the great temptation to contrast the ordinary with something tangible: such as the scientific. And thus the yoyo back to the point at which we began: the deeplytendentious identification of Wittgenstein as someone opposed to linguistic innovation, and ruling ‘Cognitive Science’ or whatever out a priori on the alleged ground that it ‘violates the logic of our language’.
About as convincing as saying to someone that they can’t start calling whales mammals, because they were once upon a time a paradigm case of ‘fish’.xxxii This kind of silliness is given a superficial patina of interpretive support by Wittgenstein’s (deep, and genuine) antipathy to scientism. But note: it is an antipathy to scientism. Not to science! Not, in other words, to whatever is actually scientific (usually, at least something!) in the actions of scientists.
I called the misidentification of the contrast class to ‘ordinary’ intended by Wittgenstein the crucial mistake in the inheritance of Wittgenstein’s philosophy. The appellation is justified, because this mistake of mythological dimensions has in effect meant that an apparently extremely diverse range of philosophers who have taken themselves to inherit from Wittgenstein have, in the most crucial respect, failed to do so. These philosophers certainly include Gilbert Ryle, the Logical Positivists (including even the most subtle of them such as Schlick and the later Carnap), the ‘Ordinary Language Philosophers’, Tony Kenny, Peter Hacker and his followers such as Hanjo Glock; and many more. These philosophers have thought that Wittgenstein was ruling out various ways of expressing ourselves as untrue to our language / our conceptual scheme, or as incompatible with sense. Furthermore, the range of philosophers negatively affected by this failure to inherit from Wittgenstein is much wider: because it includes very many philosophers who take themselves to be in some crucial respect opposed to Wittgenstein, because they do not accept the philosophical validity and force of categories such as (respectively) ‘category mistake’, ‘violation of logical syntax’, ‘wrong use of our language’ (or ‘not a way we (can) use words’), ‘transgression of the bounds of sense’, ‘violation of the rules of grammar’, etc. . They – rightly – refuse the right of the wouldbe languagepolice – e.g. Ryle, Ayer, Carnap, Flew, Strawson, Hacker (or even Searle, with his efforts to ‘clarify’ the functional categories of speech) – to stop them from using words in novel ways, introducing technical distinctions
that go beyond the language of the layman, etc. . And they see and hear these wouldbe languagepolice as the spokespeople or followers of Wittgenstein. And so, understandably, they (believe that they) reject Wittgenstein.
There is a smaller group of philosophers who understand the employment that Wittgenstein practices to powerful mythbreaking and liberating effect of the terms “ordinary” and “everyday” – as opposed to metaphysical. This group includes Gordon Baker, Stanley Cavell, Cora Diamond, Katherine Morris – and J.L. Austin. Austin is standardly thought to be the greatest exponent of ‘Ordinary Language Philosophy’. Perhaps so: but, if so, Ordinary Language Philosophy need not fall into the ‘crucial mistake’ that has been my topic in this article. Alice Crary, Eugen Fischer and Tommi Uschanov have in recent years argued convincingly xxxiii that Austin has been horribly misinterpreted as relying on ordinary usage to win philosophical arguments, when in fact his appeal to the ordinary is fundamentally drawn from / the same as Wittgenstein’s: the ordinary is simply whatever is available to us that we ourselves can satisfactorily adduce without falling into what we ourselves regard as dogmatic essentialism / equivocation / lack of sense / metaphysics. Austin’s greatest works are entirely compatible with Wittgenstein’s use of the term “ordinary”. Austin would for instance applaud Wittgenstein’s remark that “[O]ne can only determine the grammar of a language with the consent of a speaker, but not the orbit of the stars with the consent of the stars. The rule for a sign, then, is the rule which the speaker commits himself to.” xxxiv
And this should hardly surprise us. For the kind of insight that Austin provokes in us, when he suggests famously for instance that it is what we want to contrast with reality that determines what force the word “real” has, rather than the other way around, is of the same genre as Wittgenstein’s suggestion that we understand what is ordinary or everyday not by virtue of a substantive ascertainment of their content but by virtue of what we want to
contrast with them. Namely, the utterly extraordinary, the ‘beyond’ to the ‘limits’ of sense: metaphysics/nonsense. All actual language that is language that we ourselves are not brought to recognize as only a failing attempt to mean is someone’s everyday language. Scientific language, just as much as the language of the grocers’ or of the test match or of the text message. The (probably endless) task of philosophy is to prick the balloon of uses of language that are entirely unsupported, and thus to deprive it of further attractiveness. To give us peace, by ‘returning’ us to ourselves.
Everyday vs. metaphysical: a distinction with a ‘therapeutic’ purpose But why make these ‘counterintuitive’ claims? Why say that (e.g.) using Einstein’s relativity theory can count as ordinary language in operation? The (Wittgensteinian) distinction between ordinary or everyday on the one hand and metaphysical on the other is a distinction that subserves a ‘therapeutic’ purpose. In itself, it is of no moment. It is not an attempt to categorise or theorise language though it will doubtless often be heard as such (as it nearly always was for instance even from the mouth of one as subtle and as innovativelyinheritative of Wittgenstein as Austin); and working through the inclination so to hear it will itself be of signal therapeutic worth... And the purpose is: to focus one’s attention in on one’s target in philosophy. Namely: ‘Uses’ of language that are systematically unclear, and that are not satisfying even to their purveyors. (Einsteinian talk in itself does not in general suffer from that defect. It is, to one initiated in it, perfectly clear and ordinary, and moreover it is a cute case for my present purposes, in that it is arguably itself a tool for clarifying what is unclear in nonEinsteinian talk when it takes in conditions such as those that apply when velocities an appreciable fraction of that of light are in play.)
Why though am I so down on metaphysics? Isn’t this tantamount to condemning many of the marvelous products of the human mind to the scrap heap? Not at all. Note once again that calling something ‘nonsense’ is for Wittgenstein as I am interpreting him a provisional judgement, and a last resort. Rather than being something that one is entitled to do with certitude, and even does with abandon, as is the case for Ryle, Ayer, Hacker etc. . Note therefore that (as discussed below) a proper understanding of the metaphysical vs. ordinary contrast is compatible with finding many of the great works of Western philosophy NOT to consist of metaphysics, at their greatest (one could for instance say this of Berkeley,xxxv Kant, Nietszche and Heidegger, among others). And note finally that one can have the very deepest of respect for what one believes to be in the end a heroic and natural
xxxvi
but nevertheless mythicallyflawed human endeavour; I hope I follow
Wittgenstein, in having such respect for the metaphysical systems etc. of a good number of the great philosophers of the Western canon.
What about literature? Is my line of thought not tantamount to thinking that much great literature is nonsense? Possibly. But nonsense is not, as I noted earlier, always a term of criticism. Most of what Wittgenstein himself wrote, it follows from the argument being pursued here, may be bestconstrued as through and through transitional. As not ordinary working language, but (one might venture to say) metaphysics that knows it is metaphysics and can end all metaphysics. Do I criticize Wittgenstein’s work, then, as (an imaginative engagement with and in) nonsense? Far from it. Similarly with literature.xxxvii Literature is often language on display. The form of such language is paramount. It both is and isn’t language, we might say. We might call literature the imagination of language, or perhaps the dream of language. Inasmuch as we are inclined to identify the work that
language does, or the communications that it accomplishes, as essential to (its being) language, we may conclude that much poetry, and also some of the greatest ‘prose’ of the likes of Shakespeare, Faulkner, Woolf, Joyce and Beckett, among others, partakes of the character of nonlanguage, or of non sense at least. As being at least as akin to beautiful or brilliant decoration or to eternallypossible and neveractual meaning as to expression or communication of a content. Is that cause for criticism? Again, hardly. It is the very achievement of these authors; and of a good number more besides.
And what about my own discourse here? Is it everyday/ordinary (or not)? Well, yes and no. Or (once again): it depends upon your purpose. As Wittgenstein puts it: It is as you please.xxxviii It has significant affinities with ‘metaphysical uses’ of language: crucially, in that it is not used with a genuine contrastclass.xxxix It is knowingly used in this way. It is in that regard comparable with Heidegger’s famous selfconscious employment(s) of nonsense, pilloried by Carnap but explored and provisionally defended / charitably interpreted by Wittgenstein and his followers.xl On the other hand, Wittgenstein’s own writing is in an important sense much more accessible than (say) Heidegger’s. Wittgenstein does not try to create a new jargon – on the contrary (That was what he was most afraid of, and sought to avert). He himself goes so far as to say this: “When I talk about language (words, sentences, etc.) I must speak the language of everyday. Is this language somehow too coarse and material for what we want to say? Then how is another one to be constructed? And how strange that we should be able to do anything at all with the one we have! // In giving explanations I have already to use language fullblown (not some preparatory, provisional one)…” (PI 120; translation emended) xli And this: “The philosophy of logic speaks of sentences and words in exactly the sense in which we speak of them in ordinary life when we say e.g.
“Here is a Chinese sentence”, or “No, that only looks like writing; it is actually just an ornament” xlii and so on. // We are talking about the spatial and temporal phenomenon of language, not about some nonspatial non temporal phantasm. But we talk about it as we do about the pieces in chess when we are stating the rules of the game, not describing their physical properties.” (PI 108). Wittgenstein urges us, at times such as these, to try to see his own employments of words as ordinary/everyday. But it remains the case that there is an urging or a trying required here. So: it is as you please. You must take responsibility for the ways you use words.xliii As Wittgenstein takes responsibility for the provocative use he makes of the words “ordinary”/”everyday” in speaking of language/life, juxtaposing them principally to “metaphysics”/”nonsense”, rather than to (say) “scientific”/”technical”, and relying on the unfolding of the strange concept of “metaphysical”/“nonsensical” to teach us what he means by “ordinary”/”everyday”. We might say: he speaks the language of everyday, albeit in a somewhat noneveryday way, in order to draw attention to its form, that we live and breathe in, and so that escapes our attention normally. What he draws attention to is not one thing rather than another. It is rather the actuality of anything at all being thought or said, which is itself something that metaphysics tends to try to put into question.
Beyond the concept of ‘example’ Why have I given so few examples of ordinary or everyday language in this article? Hasn’t the article been in significant part awfully … abstract? Un ordinary? Tendentious? But the very term ‘example’ here is a misnomer, in its implication that there is content prior to the examples, that ‘examples’ only ever illustrate something greater than themselves. This is the very kind of assumption that a proper Wittgensteinian emphasis on Ordinary Language will overcome…
This article is designed to subserve a therapeutic purpose, and in trying to subserve that purpose, and to liberate oneself and others from the compulsion to seek a solid guarantee of what words mean (in order, one in effect fantasizes, to save one from the hard work of actually doing the therapy), I have taken the risk of using numerous odd modes of expression, of engaging in metaphorical and perhaps metaphysical uses (‘uses’?)… What is the alternative? I could stick resolutely to using what is without doubt ordinary language (cf. Tractatus 6.53), but this would be unlikely to be satisfying/effective. Or I could stick to pointing out wouldbe instances of metaphysics (cf. again Tractatus 6.53), but this would hardly satisfactorily amount to an article whose title is “Ordinary and everyday language”. Why have I given so few ‘examples’ of ordinary/everyday language in this article? One might risk the following reply: Because, in context,xliv everything is ordinary. This is the way we look at things. (And in the spirit of PI 122, we should now perhaps ask: Is this a worldview?) Everything that is anything. There is no such thing as proprietorily pointing to the everyday. To do so would be as absurd as trying to point to one’s visual field, or to point out the universe. As I have suggested we say: “The everyday” is itself, ironically, if it is to be useful, perhaps best heard as a ‘noneveryday’ ‘category’. A ‘transitional’ category. It is not some things rather than others… So wouldn’t the better way to proceed after all simply be by giving ‘examples’ of metaphysical uses of language? But the scarequotes cannot be dropped: because there aren’t any. Metaphysics is an aspiration or a falling only. It is not an achievementterm…
Conclusion Let me end by giving Wittgenstein the last word, and by giving a kind of example: an example drawn from the antiprivatelanguage considerations, an example of ‘language on holiday’, an example that Wittgenstein explores
with particular verve and draws a key lesson from, for our purposes here. This is PI 402 (translation emended):
“It’s true that I say “Now I am having suchandsuch an image”, but the words “I am having” are merely a sign to someone else; the description of the image is a complete account of the imagined world.”—You mean: the words “I am having” are like “I say!: . . . .” You are inclined to say it should really have been expressed differently. Perhaps simply by making a sign with one’s hand and then giving a description. –When, as in this case, we disapprove of the expressions of ordinary language (which are after all performing their office), we have got a picture in our head which conflicts with the picture of our ordinary way of speaking. Whereas we are tempted to say that our way of speaking does not describe the facts as they really are. As if (e.g.) the proposition “He has pains” could be false in some other way than by that man’s not having pains. As if the form of expression were saying something false even when the proposition faute de mieux asserted something true. For this is what disputes between Idealists, Solipsists and Realists look like. The one party attack the normal form of expression as if they were attacking a statement; the others defend it, as if they were stating facts recognized by every reasonable human being. xlv
Many thanks to my colleagues Oskari Kuusela (especially), Angus Ross, Phil Hutchinson, Garry Hagberg, Alun Davies, Simon Summers, and Gavin Kitching, for very helpful readings of drafts of this article, and to Avner Baz for inspiring comments. ii PI 116. The (‘nonliteral’) translation here is mine relativism and the prospect of languagepolicing in order to secure the ‘boundaries’ of these ‘languagegames’. See his powerful essay, “Wittgenstein on Metaphysical / Everyday Use”, in his Wittgenstein’s Method: Neglected Aspects (ed. K. Morris), Oxford: Blackwell, 2004, stronglyrecommended for anyone serious about getting straight on Wittgenstein’s use of the concepts of everyday/ordinary. Ibid., p.100f., based upon the Anscombe translation. I believe that the Anscombe translation has unwarrantedly overlyencouraged many readers to search for a ‘languagegame theory’ in Wittgenstein, in which one would segment ordinary language from scientific language from metaphysical language etc., and thus immediately commit oneself to a kind of relativism and the prospect of languagepolicing in order to secure the ‘boundaries’ of these ‘languagegames’. iii See his powerful essay, “Wittgenstein on Metaphysical / Everyday Use”, in his Wittgenstein’s Method: Neglected Aspects (ed. K. Morris), Oxford: Blackwell, 2004, stronglyrecommended for anyone serious about getting straight on Wittgenstein’s use of the concepts of everyday/ordinary. iv Ibid., p.100f. v Frequently, of course, this one: oneself. vi Often, another good word for this can be precisely: metaphysics. When metaphysics is empty, a hovering only. vii Cf. also Wittgenstein’s various remarks on language “idling”, memorablyexplored by James Guetti, in his “Idling Rules” (“Idling Rules,” Philosophical Investigations, 16:3 (Summer 1993)). viii What flickers borrows from the context that it seems to promise to drop into while never truly doing so. ix One might truly call an isolated languagegame one involving metaphysical use of words. But philosophers are rarely content to allow metaphysics to remain isolated. They wish it in some way to revise the rest of language – or, at least (as in the case of the metaphysics of Ordinary Language Philosophy) to ‘undergird’ its not being in need of revision, and to conserve it. x Katherine Morris’s essay, “Wittgenstein’s Method: Ridding people of philosophical prejudices” (in Kuusela et al Wittgenstein and his interpreters (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007)) is of considerable use in this connection. She points out subtly and in detail (see especially p.78) how Wittgenstein has no objection whatever to someone violating ordinary usage, but, as Baker puts it on p.208 of Wittgenstein’s Method, “What is pathological in [the metaphysician’s] thinking is not the deviance of his philosophical utterances from everyday speechpatterns, but the unconscious motives which give rise to [this] behaviour.” This was I believe just what the generation of John Wisdom had in mind with the analogy to psychoanalysis. xi The kind of reminder that is the staple of the philosophy of Walker Percy. And resonates in a number of major philosophical works of art, such as Terence Malick’s film, The Thin Red Line. xii Closing sentences, “Conceptions of nonsense in Carnap and Wittgenstein”, in Crary and Read (eds.) The New Wittgenstein (London: Routledge, 2000). Compare also p.235 of The Voices of Wittgenstein. (Of course, it is often oneself as often as others who falls into ‘metaphysical use’: ‘returning’ words to the ordinary is a personal, and not just a critical struggle. As it were: Being resolute ain’t no walk in the park…) And compare too the following, from Ludwig Wittgenstein: Public and private occasions (eds. J. Klagge and A. Nordmann), p.394: “[Sensation] is a ghost word. But that does not mean that I may not be used. I don’t want to prohibit the use of any words unless they are misleading. They are misleading when they in fact mislead us. You may use all sorts of misleading expressions without harm if only you remember what they mean and when they become dangerous.” (Emphasis added). xiii Though it is vital to note a key codicil: that everyday language is itself molded by philosophical metaphysical ideas and hence there's no straightforward return to it. Such ‘return’ is always a project. This is one reason for my repeatedly scarequoting the word ‘return’. (For amplification of these matters, see below.) xiv The Big Typescript, p.410. xv Thus – and this is critically important, in every sense of the word “critically” – criticism in philosophy has got to begin by seeking to recover the place from which the other’s words are coming. (Compare for instance On Certainty 37, and Wittgenstein’s response to Moore more generally). Trying to figure out what the other was trying to say is of course an everyday practice which needn’t attach one to any confusion or delusion. xvi G. H. von Wright (with H. Nyman) (ed.), trans. P. Winch (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980); p.44. [This segment of this article is based on material published previously in my “Throwing away ‘the bedrock’”, Proceedings of
i
the Aristotelian Society 105.1 (2004): 8198.] xvii Lectures and Conversations on Aesthetics, Psychology and religious belief, C. Barrett (ed.) (Berkeley: U. Cal. Press, 1970). xviii Compare here Zettel 4479. (Roughly: There is no languagegame of philosophy; whereas there is, of normal science. Agreement in philosophy is thus a radically different kind of animal from agreement in science. The former, we might venture, is never agreement in opinions. Because opinions, assertions, are not, in philosophy’s case, of the essence.) xix The distinction between metaphysics and the ordinary is not easy to make, and cannot be made once and for all. Compare this remark of Wittgenstein’s, from TS213 4223 (and cf. also PI 109): “Why are the grammatical problems so tough and seemingly ineradicable?—Because they are connected with the oldest thoughthabits, i.e. with the oldest pictures that are engraved into our language itself... // People are deeply embedded in philosophical…confusions. And to free them from these presupposes pulling them out of the immensely manifold connections they are caught up in… But this language came about…as it did because people had—and have—the inclination to think in this way.” As Kuusela comments on this (in The struggle against dogmatism (Cambridge: Harvard, 2008, p.278)): “[I]f everyday language is itself molded by philosophically problematic thought habits…, then one evidently cannot appeal to it in any straightforward way to settle philosophical disputes. Rather, when describing ordinary uses one is in constant danger of producing descriptions that are themselves informed by philosophical prejudices and pictures. Accordingly, Wittgenstein’s conception of everyday language seems radically different from that of the ordinary language philosophers…”. xx For more on this term in such contexts as this, see Cora Diamond’s work on and around the Tractatus, in particular. xxi Compare here my remarks on the ‘flatness’ of language, in my article in Essays in Philosophy, at
http://www.humboldt.edu/~essays/read.html
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For explication, see Part II of my Applying Wittgenstein (London: Continuum, 2007). This connects of course to why philosophical work of this kind is unavoidable personal in character. A work on oneself, and on others each with their quiddities. xxiii I am thinking of course here of Verificationism’s banishment to meaninglessness of a great deal, including for starters ethics and aesthetics. xxiv Obviously, I cannot adequately defend here Strawson’s inclusion in this list, at which some might baulk, and I concede that there are some of Strawson’s essays that don’t fit this characterisation of him. One case against Strawson’s inclusion might be mostnaturally summed up as follows: Wasn’t Strawson a descriptive metaphysician? How could a metaphysician be a mere wordpoliceman? But policing the use of words, dogmatically or conservatively insisting upon their being used in certain ways, is merely one more variant of metaphysics. It is the simple negation of the fetishisation of linguistic innovation (as if to capture nature’s ontology) inherent in scientism. Strawson generally seems to believe that the bounds of sense mark off from us a tangible substantial realm – in this way, he falls fouls of the therapeutic exploration of the nonsensicality of ‘substantial nonsense’ and of ‘limits’ to thought already inherent in Wittgenstein’s Tractatus. …For a strong and beautifullyargued defence of Ordinary Language Philosophy (in the very person of Strawson) amounting to a more satisfactory case against its inclusion in the list here, see Avner Baz’s (forthcoming) “In defence of Ordinary Language Philosophy”. It is certainly possible that Ordinary Language Philosophy is by and large innocent of the charge, or at least that plenty of Ordinary Language philosophers (including at times Strawson) do not fit the paradigm of what has come down to us as Ordinary Language Philosophy (I allow already that of Austin, for sure, and would say the same of Ebersole). Establishing whether it is or not inevitably lies beyond the scope of this paper. xxv What these philosophers / philosophies have in common is: no time for the suggestion that philosophical work has an ineradicably personal character. Thus the ‘Oxford Wittgensteinians’ in effect allow for an allegedlyWittgensteinian ‘research programme’ of setting down the grammar of our language, ruling out the transgressions of its rules allegedlypresent in various beknighted scientistic thinkers, etc. . xxvi See also Baker’s remarkable paper, “A vision of philosophy”, in Wittgenstein’s Method. xxvii Compare here p.277f. of Voices of Wittgenstein: “Should we record the actual use of a word, variable and irregular though it be? This would at best produce a history of the use of words. Or should we set up a particular use as a paradigm? Should we say: Only this use is legitimate, and everything else is deviant? This would be a tyrannical ruling.” This passage is devastating for any ‘Ordinary Language Philosophy’ interpretation of Wittgenstein.
I steal this example from p.103 of Baker’s “Metaphysical / Everyday” essay. It is worth pointing out parenthetically that there need be nothing problematically conservative about the idiom of ‘return’ that this article is promoting. The ‘return’ to ordinary language is just an effort to come back from a state of undecision to something more like mastery of one’s own language. The ‘return’ is made for forwardlooking reasons, one might usefully say. xxx For a clear picture of why, one need look no further than Kuhn’s philosophy of science (and/or Wittgenstein’s On Certainty). xxxi Needless to say, I do not mean by these remarks to buy into any kind of Idealism. The topic under discussion / the field of view here, is language. And taking that seriously always involves taking seriously that words are interleaved utterly inextricably with world and with deeds. xxxii For development of this thought, see particularly Phil Hutchinson’s philosophy of the emotions. xxxiii “The Happy Truth: J. L. Austin"s How To Do Things With Words”, Crary A. Inquiry, Volume 45, Number 1, March 2002 , pp. 5980; and “Austin on SenseData: Ordinary Language Analysis as ‘Therapy’” Eugen Fischer, in: Grazer Philosophische Studien 70 (2005): 6799; and Uschanov’s http://www.helsinki.fi/~tuschano/writings/strange/ . Also Avner Baz, in his (forthcoming) “In defence of ordinary language philosophy”. xxxiv Voices of Wittgenstein (ed. Gordon Baker; London: Routledge, 2003), p.105. xxxv See Diamond’s Introductions to The Realistic Spirit (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1991). xxxvi As Wittgenstein and Cavell repeatedly stress, metaphysics involves deep human urges. For discussion, see the latter stages of my “Wittgenstein and literary language”, joint with Jon Cook, op. cit. . xxxvii I discuss an important forinstance in my paper, jointauthored with Jon Cook, “Wittgenstein and literary language”, forthcoming in the Blackwell Companion to the Philosophy of Literature, edited by Garry Hagberg. xxxviii And, to deflate the issue quite a bit, in any case: What is everyday to some people is often not everyday to others. Think of (say) the thoughtcommunity that is ‘at home’ in relativity theory; and of the (much larger) thoughtcommunity that isn’t. xxxix On this, see again my “Throwing away ‘the bedrock’”, and p.98 of Baker’s “Wittgenstein on Metaphysical / Everyday Use”. (One might usefully say: there is no fact of the matter as to whether my discourse here is ordinary or not. One might characterise this metaphilosophy as ‘noncognitive’.) xl See for instance p.208f. of Baker’s “Wittgenstein’s method and psychoanalysis”, in his op.cit., and James Conant’s and Ed Witherspoon’s writings on Wittgenstein and Heidegger. xli See my “Wittgenstein and Marx on ‘Philosophical language””, at http://www.humboldt.edu/~essays/read.html , passim, for detailed reading of this remark with regard to the everyday vs. philosophical/metaphysical contrast. Cf. also PI 134; and 412, on an unparadoxicality of things we say, of ‘the everyday’, even when it includes seemingattempts at metaphysics. xlii Cf. PI 16. We should also ask ourselves whether e.g. language employed as a welldecoration is really language, at all. Questions such as this will with efficacity ‘return’ us to our everyday language, as if we then know it for that first time. xliii As Cavell and Kuusela have it: Philosophy is a quest for justice, and is saturated by ethics. We might even venture that, for Wittgenstein, ethics is 1st philosophy. xliv And, roughly: what a new metaphor etc. so far ‘lacks’, we might say, is: a context, that exhausts and ordinaryises it. xlv Thanks for invaluable comments to Phil Hutchinson, Garry Hagberg, Alun Davies, Simon Summers, Gavin Kitching, and Angus Ross.
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